1. The Development of a Territory and an Industry
Although history is the "recorded account or narrative" of the past, a comprehensive history or account of mining in Arizona must begin long before such narratives existed. Archaeological research has revealed that pre-historic peoples of this region used a variety of "mined" resources in their daily lives. There is evidence that as early as 1000 B.C., native inhabitants used cinnabar, coal, turquoise, clay, pigments, and other minerals.

As these early cultures developed, so did their reliance on and utilization of minerals and substances dug from the earth. Stones were chipped and sharpened into a variety of tools. Minerals dug from the earth were used to stain and decorate the body. Native Americans, using fire and water to heat and shatter the rock, fashioned copper and turquoise into jewelry and decorative items. It wasn't until the 16th century, however, when the Spaniards crossed the ocean in search of riches, that the Arizona mining industry began to take shape with the exploration for valuable minerals like gold, silver and copper.

The Spanish Explorers: From Religion to Riches
Spanish mining of the American West was driven by the "Three Gs" (glory, God and gold) — especially God and gold. Spaniards first entered the territory and took formal possession of the Southwest regions of the United States, including what would become Arizona, early in the sixteenth century. Within each Indian settlement, which the Spanish called "pueblo" (meaning village), they assigned a Catholic priest and required the natives to honor and obey both the Catholic church and the Spanish crown. Meanwhile, in addition to bringing their religion into the area, Spanish explorers also saw an opportunity to bring riches in the form of gold, back to their homeland.

Search for the Fabled Cities
The region's wealth first became apparent in 1535 when Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca and his companions reported hearing tales of cities of gold in the region. Calling their finds the "Seven Cities of Cibola", their reports fired the Spanish imagination with visions of another culture matching the mineral wealth of the Aztec or Inca societies. Five years later, having won the right to search for these fabled cities, Francisco Vasquez de Coronado led a multi-pronged expedition northward from Mexico.

Two years of exploration by Coronado revealed many new and wondrous sights—great canyons, extensive plains, and large new "cows"—but no cities of gold. Reporting this failure to Spain's Viceroy, Antonio Mendoza, ended Spain's pursuit of gold in the region for the next 40 years. The Spaniards, however, continued to push northward in search of glory and God. Inspired by mining strikes at Guanaquato, Zacatecas, Durango and Santa Barbara, they began moving up the Rio Grande and resumed the search for gold in 1582 when Antonio de Espejo reported on the richness of the region and the discovery of mines in what is today central Arizona.

The solitary prospector and his burro heading out in search of gold was the image of western mining throughout the early decades.

Photo Courtesy Arizona Historical Foundation

Espejo's reports led to the colonization of New Mexico by Juan de Oñate in 1598. From there on the bank of the Rio Grande, Oñate governed the region and oversaw explorations of the territory, including what would later become Arizona. Among their Arizona finds Marcos Farfan de los Godos reported seeing rich veins and staked a number of claims, including an old shaft 18 feet deep, in the area of present-day Jerome. Despite his glowing report on the mineral wealth, the Arizona claims were too far from Spain's capital in New Mexico to be feasibly developed.

An 1867 map depicts the then Arizona Territory.

That, combined with the Pueblo revolt that occurred when the Indians drove the Spaniards from the territory in 1680, put another temporary end to Spain's mining.

The Arrival of Father Kino
Spain returned to the region in 1686, when the Jesuit missionary Eusebio Francisco Kino was assigned to the area known as Pimeria Alta (upper land of the Pima Indians), which is now Northern Sonora and Southern Arizona. Four years later Kino entered present-day Arizona and established the missions of Guevavi, Tumacacori, and San Xavier del Bac. Although Kino's emphasis was on missionary activity, there are reports of mining by the natives.

In 1697 Capt. Mateo Manje reported Apache accounts of the use of cinnabar (mercury sulfide) for vermilion body paint. It is generally believed that the location was in the Dome Mountain range of present day La Paz county. The Tohono O'odham (Papago) Indians mined Hematite in the Ajo area. Turquoise ornaments were found in the excavation of Snaketown. Turquoise mines were discovered in the Cerbat Mountains, where a shaft was cut 20 to 25 feet into solid rock in the Courtland - Gleeson area of Cochise County and near present day Globe in Gila County.

In addition to mining being done by the natives, the Spaniards also resumed mining. In his accounts of Pimeria Alta, Kino wrote, "many good mines of gold and silver . . . many rich veins now being established." While it is believed he was writing about Northern Sonora, he may have been referring to the area around Tubac, Arizona. This belief is based on the presence of many abandoned Spanish mines in the Tubac-Tumacacori area, which were re-discovered when the Americans arrived in 1848.

The Naming of Arizona
Even the naming of our 48th state, Arizona, may be attributable to mining. Long before establishment of the Arizona territory, when the Spaniards still controlled the region, a ranch hand discovered a rich deposit of virtually pure native silver at Arizonac, a mine located southwest of present-day Nogales. Large nuggets, some as enormous as 3600 pounds, were identified as "Plancas de Plata" (Bolas de Plata). Excited prospectors rushed into the region beginning in 1736. Many believe this strike at Arizonac, which eventually produced more than two tons of silver, was responsible for the naming of this state.

While the silver finds at Arizonac clearly demonstrated the mining potential of present Arizona, Spain's efforts to develop the region were seriously hampered by the Apaches and Navajos. Both tribes resisted the Spaniard's efforts to change their lifestyle, thus limiting mining activity. There was a brief reprieve for Spanish miners in the 1780s when Viceroy Galvez introduced his "Peace by Deceit" plan. This plan, which included providing the Indians with food, guns and whiskey, provided a period of relative calm during which some mining was conducted. That period of peace and prosperity ended in 1810 with Father Hidalgo's "Grito de Delores" and Mexico's long War of Independence.

By 1821 when Mexico achieved independence from Spain, the marauding Indians had forced the civilized peoples of Pimeria Alta into the protection of the presidios at Tubac and Tucson, especially Tucson. Mexico's internal problems left the northern frontier to fend for itself and at the mercy of the warlike natives. Mining (and all other economic activity) was too risky, and development of the region did not resume until the Americans arrived in 1848 following the Mexican-American War.